Exemplification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Exemplification - Essay Example If one just tries to analyze a sample of the varied computer games available in the market, it would turn out that they mostly happen to be a programmed version of the contemporary cultural icons, scarcely facilitating any opportunity for the exercise of imagination (Bennahum 78). These games are not only turning children away from the play grounds, but are also depriving them of the opportunities for the free play of imagination that playing in a group scenario, in the lap of nature, under the blue sky, surrounded by the stimulating presence of birds, animals, insects and plants could present. Considering the fact that most of the contemporary adults today prefer to opt for a career, parents today scarcely have the time and the inclination to go for an imagination rich parenting (Gilbert 146). They simply do not understand that buying the luxurious gifts simply could not take the place of things like camping with the child in the woods, telling fanciful bedtime stories while nudging the child to fill in the gaps in the plot with one’s imaginary ideas and creations, watching a spooky movie with the child and enjoying its momentary grip on her nascent imaginative faculties. Moments to exercise imagination are fast fading away from the family experiences of children. The irony is that modern education, which is supposed to polish and hone the imaginative faculties of the children, actually happens to fall short of such expectations. For instance, most of the academic institutions resort to very standardized curricula, turning a blind eye to the fact that strict regimentation of learning opportunities not only curbs the opportunities for the exercise of creativity and imagination, but sometimes snub imagination (White 7). A regular mathematics teacher will feel really irritated if a ten year old says that number 2 looks like a duck, or number 8 resembles a fat woman. No

A job application letter, a resume,a cover letter Assignment

A job application letter, a resume,a cover letter - Assignment Example nal potentials; housing facility is not available, the duty hours are 40 hours of work per week, and possible overtime may be required depending upon need basis and there is no drug test required for the job; however the government would have a background check. Occasional travel may be required for training purposes. According to the job description the candidate has to perform several duties; these duties include to asses patient care need and to adjust the staff appointments accordingly, to assess the opportunities of improvement, serves on committee and to review and revise nursing policies, must participate in problem solving, develop plans for the care of patients, formulate nursing intervention based on their identification of the diagnosis, consult with healthcare professional on patients to coordinate the diagnosis, must be able to promote harmonious environment, initiates treatments and mediations based on appropriate utilization of standing orders, must be able to operate specialized equipments, maintains professional knowledge through continuing education and must be able to perform other related duties assigned. I believe learning and expanding my learning to the world around. I believe in helping humans and ensuring that I do something creative with my life so that I can be able to serve mankind and the environment around. Life is about giving and I want to get so that I can give. I am writing to you with respect to your job announcement titled â€Å"Clinical Nurse† at PHS Indian Health Hospital in Pipe Ridge, South Dakota, USA. I have been working as a Nurse with USA Memorial Hospital for the past 8 years and over the 8 years I have been awarded 3 times as the best nurse award. I believe in providing the best of services, I am very caring towards human nature and the only reason I opted for a nursing degree and occupation is I want to serve the mankind; I want to give them a source of comfort and a piece of mind. In order to achieve my goal I have

Ethical Management Essay Example for Free

Ethical Management Essay This essay seeks to identify the study of ethical management on a broad scope, and to specifically sieve out the issues which are common within the banking sector. This would include a case study on UBS and ethical problems which UBS have faced. As ethics cannot be divorced entirely from the study of sustainability and corporate social responsibility, this essay will also feature a look at banks, and their decisions which might be been unethical. The Study of Ethical Management While there might be many reasons why unethical behaviour happens, this essay would be looking at three of them in particular: 1) Personal Gain, 2) Strong Organisational Identification, and 3) Personality. . To examine the relationship between organizations and why ethical issues occur within them, we first define the term â€Å"Business† and â€Å"Businessperson†. The book, â€Å"Business Ethics†, written by William(2008), states that a business can represent and range from a start-up venture by some students, to a multinational corporation. Businessperson might be a sole proprietor running a business for themselves, or a CEO responsible for a multinational corporation. To take a broader view, we view the businesspeople under the personal point of view, and couple them with the other individuals who are within the organization. This would allow us to see why unethical behaviour can derive not only from the top management, but from every aspect of the organization. To expound on the individual, we refer to the book written by Schminke(2010), â€Å"Managerial Ethics†, where he identified â€Å"four individual decision-making styles†. The first belongs to an individualist mentality, this mentality ignores the stakeholders. The second mentality is altruistic, where the benefit of others is of the essence. The third group is the pragmatists, and lastly, the idealist, whose decisions are governed by principles and rules. Common Ethical issues faced in the Banking sector 1) Insiders Trading Insider trading, defined by Cornell University Law School, is when company’s stocks or other securities are traded by individuals who have access to undisclosed and confidential information. These individuals are known as insiders. To better comprehend the concerns of insider trading, we refer to the paper by Yulong Huey-Lian(1998). Two things must first be addressed. First, who do these insiders refer to? Secondly, how is insider trading illegal? By definition from the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission(S. E. C. ), insiders are, â€Å"chairmen, directors, officers, etc. , and principal shareholders with 10 percent or more of their own firm’s common stock†. People in these positions are likely to be able to gain access to the firm’s undisclosed information. However, not all insiders trading are illegal. For example, managers of firms can often purchase its own firm’s stocks to increase their own individual share and voting power within the firm. This train of thought also believes that the more stock of the firm the manager holds, the greater their ownership and thus a higher work morale is derived from it. Insiders are still allowed to purchase its own firm’s stock, if they truly believe that it is a good investment. Insider trading becomes illegal however, when trades are made by insiders with the prior knowledge of an announcement for the investor’s personal gain. When an act as such is committed, insider trading becomes illegal. This action is deemed unethical as it is unfair to investors who do not possess the material information. Other transgressions can include the handling of undisclosed firm’s information from a firm’s insider to a public investor. For a trade to occur under the basis of the privileged information, and for the recipient to have personally gained from the trade, both parties can be charged under the S. E. C. ’s regulation of Fair Disclosure. An example of illegal insider trading within banks can be seen from as recently as January 16, 2014, where David Michael Gutman from J. P. Morgan colluded with Christopher John Tyndall from Meyers Associates. As â€Å"long time close personal friends†, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority(FINRA) discovered that Gutman had shared material, undisclosed information with Tyndall over a span of 19 months. This information included pending corporate mergers and acquisition transactions, which allowed Tyndall to make informed, no-risk trading using personal and family accounts. Quoting from Cameron K. Funkhouser, he said, â€Å"David Gutman had the keys to the kingdom through his position at J. P. Morgan as a gatekeeper.. †, we can see to how unethical behaviour driven by an individual in the position of power, can taint the image of the firm. Enforcements have been put in place to prevent and to deter insiders from carrying out such behaviours. The SEC has instituted new rules, 10b5-1 and 10b5-2 under the code of Federal Regulations, and the enforcement of these regulations being made global just recently in 2013 after the insider trading inquiry regarding the acquisition of H. J. Heinz Company. 2) Profits before Ethics The relationship between business ethics and profits can be complicated at times. Profits values will sometimes conflict with ethical values which will lead to unethical business behaviour in the manager’s bid to raise profits within the firm, consequentially affecting the firm’s stakeholders. Watkins (2011) brings about the argument that for those who ethics concerns, the chase of pecuniary values creates a potential compromise between social ethics and profitable opportunities, a factor that links to the Goldman Rule. The rule states that the greater the profitable opportunities, the higher the opportunity cost for the firm to consider ethical behaviours. This is further described by Weber (2006), as he states that companies are not evaluated on their success based on â€Å"their reputation for ethics†, but on the basis of profitability. It is plausible now to see why banks are driven by a sole concern for profit and to raise the value of their stock. With that in mind, what are some ethical boundaries a bank could trespass upon? As a corporation whose sole objective is to increase profit, they carries the potential turn a blind eye to internal ethics; explained in the book by Reynolds (2011) titled, â€Å"Ethics in Investment Banking†, which defines internal ethics as ethical considerations in regards to their employees’ welfare and the considerations in the use of the shareholder resources. These transgressions can range in forms of overworking employees, to an audit coverage of losses to portray a higher stock market price. As individuals looking for greater profits either for self or the firm, especially under the investment wings of banks, individuals can turn rogue and make unauthorised transactions which goes beyond the risk limits of the banks in hope of a greater profit. Jerome Kerviel’s case in 2008; where even the hierarchy turned a blind eye to his risks due to the profit he was generating, and Nick Leeson’s famous collapse of Barings Bank in 1995 are two such examples. Investments in environmentally harmful industries Environmentally harmful projects have been a major factor against Global Warming Awareness efforts. Such investments are being funnelled by banks who are less ethical in the area of sustainability. There have been numerous campaigns to counter banks from investing into unethical projects, some of which protestors even boycotted such banks. Citigroup the world’s largest project finance bank has been known to grant loans to these projects, which are harming the environment. Citigroup was indirectly related to the Camisea pipeline in Peru which has at least 5 spillages along the pipeline to date. Which not only damages the local ecosystems, but also detrimental to the livelihood of people around the world and threatens the well-being of mankind via climate change (Hogue, 2002). A glimpse of such unethical activities reveals something prevalent. It destroys our natural environment, by means of deforestation and the release of harmful gases from the burning of fossil fuels. However, Citigroup has yet see that their funding of major oil drilling and pipe laying companies not only worsens the global warming situation but also encourages environmental insecurity. Several other big-scale European banks, such as Dutch Bank and ABN Amro, came up with a policy which prevented funding of these industries. According to (ABN Amro’s) sustainability policy, â€Å"limited to financing of companies or projects related to timber, paper, agricultural plantations, mining and/or oil and gas. The bank would consider exceptions only â€Å"when extractions are delicately prepared, and holds responsibility on issues of national forest management. † A positive example of how banks can fund environmentally friendly projects can be seen from analysing the Banking Environment Initiative (BEI), it aims to lead the banking industry in directing bank investments towards environmentally and socially sustainable economic development. The objective of the BEI is to also unravel ways to invest in clean energy and soft commodities. As quoted from (CPSL, online), â€Å"the group, currently comprises of 10 global banking institutions which stretches across Asia to Europe, the United States and Latin America. † The best way of creating a united force amongst them was if they were acting on behalf of their clients. Consumer Goods Forum (CGF) has the intention to eliminate deforestation from their supply chain. As such they would prefer to form alliances with banks and work together to counter and ultimately eliminate deforestation. Banks have got to find ways to come up with a significant source of funding to finance the journey to sustainability. 4) False Accounting Frauds False accounting fraud, defined by the United Kingdom’s police, is the practice where a business, works in tandem with an accounting firm to overstate or understate company’s asset or liabilities with the intention of making the business appear financially stronger or healthier than it really is. As there are a multitude of reasons to commit false accounting fraud, we will not be listing all. False accounting allows for a corporation to gain higher credit ratings, report unrealistic profits, and hide losses to appeal to potential shareholders with an inflated share price. Some extraordinary cases which occurred regarding the falsification of accounts are such as the Enron scandal in 2001; where the audit and accountancy firm, Arthur Andersen was involved and convicted of assisting in audit fraud and subsequently dissolved. Enron was declared bankrupt and new laws were instituted to increase the accountability of firms who are auditing to remain independent of the clients whom they audit. Didn’t the code of conduct promise proper handling of UBS’s assets? He first began his illicit deals in late 2008, doing it for personal gains while covering his tracks with false accounting to the back office. This led to the back office being ignorant of the unauthorised trades as the regular books did not show it, instead, the profits were filed into a secret account called his Umbrella. Adoboli’s desk colleagues admitted to being in the know of the secret accounts, and his two bosses did not enquire into the suspicion despite the daily trading maximums being exceeded. This breakdown in corporate beliefs at the managerial level led to the unethical trading arising within the ranks of the department, and it going by unnoticed. While the integrity of the individual must be questioned, the work culture of UBS could be a factor to encourage the individual to behave unethically. Since the incident, UBS has taken a few measures to facilitate the new risk management practices. Firstly, the bank has taken step to refrain from proprietary trading. A bank would engage in proprietary trading as it benefits firms to make extra revenue. However, the disadvantage of engaging in this form of trading is that with high returns, often comes high risks. Conclusion In summary, how ethical management is derived has no hard and fast rule. However, implementations such as a Code of Conduct, or a company policy helps in setting the tone right within an organization. Through the paper, it is seen how ethical dilemmas can arise on an individual level or an organizational level. If one were to follow the many trains of thoughts regarding ethical management, they would get lost in the plethora of unions and activist fighting for ethical beliefs.

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories This study seeks to investigate how employed individuals form Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the characteristics of a business leader. The existing literature consistently explains that employed individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop ILTs. However, such studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process, therefore leading to a hypothesis examining this formation process. As a competing hypothesis, subordinates personalities will also be assessed on the extent to which subordinates form ILTs congruent with their own personality and how having a leadership self-image affects this relationship. Lastly, it is also predicted that subordinates share a common element when assessing ILTs, such that they will rate participative leadership behaviors higher than any other leadership behaviors. Personality and Past Experiences As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories Introduction Employees perceptions, prior expectations, and cognitive prototypes regarding the leadership process have dominated part of the leadership literature (Foti Lord, 1987; Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996; Larson, 1982; Lord Maher, 1993). Based on such literature, it has been determined that working individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal business leader (Epitropaki Martin, 2004 PAGE NUMBER). ILTs stem from cognitive structures, or schemas, that specify traits and behaviors that followers believe an ideal leader should exhibit. They are stored in the memory, and when followers interact with a person in a leadership position, such schemas become stimulated (Kenney et al., 1996). These leadership schemas provide organizational members with a cognitive basis for understanding and responding to supervisor behavior, and they are essential elements of organizational sense-making (Poole, Gioia, Gray, 1989; Weick, 1995). The potential role of ILTs within organizational settings has been highlighted in the literature (Bass Avolio, 1989; Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Lord Maher, 1993; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). Implicit leadership theories have been represented as a recognition-based approach to leadership (Lord, 1985). Based on this approach, employees compare their implicit leadership theories with their leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). This matching process is expected to form the impressions employees hold for their leaders. Each individual develops a unique schema (which is sometimes referred to as a prototype) on what traits and behaviors constitute an ideal leader, specifically in the business world. A prototype is an abstract conception of the most representative member or most widely shared features of a given cognitive category (Phillips, 1984, p. 126). These leadership prototypes are said to be formed through exposure to social events, interpersonal interactions, and prior experiences with leaders (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Therefore, the general definition of ILTs has led to the belief that past experiences predict the formation of such theories. Such prototypes are formed by role schemas (or normative expectations) that allow followers to understand and interpret leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). As such, it is proposed that leadership is a common label applied to the traits and behaviors congruent with the observers ILTs. When a person exhibits potential leadership characteristics (as defined by the ILT), subordinates assess the potential leader for distinctiveness (as in distinct leadership attributes and behaviors) regarding that behavior (Calder, 1977). If the behavior is distinguishable from the behaviors of other group members, then leadership may be attributed to the person. Similarly, it has been suggested that the perception of leadership involves the activation of a leader category (Phillips Lord, 1981). As such, a persons attributes and/or behaviors are compared to prototypical leader characteristics, activating the leader category if there is a match between attributes and the prototypical attributes and behaviors. In this regard, Lord and his associates (e.g., Lord, 1985; Lord Maher, 1993; Phillips Lord, 1981) have contributed to the ILT field. On the basis of Roschs (1978) theory of cognitive categorization, such literature suggested a categorization theory to leadership and argued that leadership perceptions form a number of hierarchically organized schemas or cognitive categories, each of which is represented by a set of prototypes. Additionally, once a person is categorized as a leader, the activated leader prototype causes followers to selectively attend to, encode, and retrieve schema-consistent information and to provide consistent information where such information does not exist (Phillips Lord, 1981 cited in Kenney, Blascovich, Shaver, p.411). Moreover, Lord and others (Lord et al., 1984; Phillips Lord, 1982) have found that people use categories to differentiate between leaders and non-leaders and between effective and ineffective leaders, which seems essential to the formation of ILTs. Other cognitive categorization theories (e.g., Barsalou, 1985; Smith Medin, 1981) however, argue that classification occurs as observers compare stimuli with ideals or specific examples stored in memory. An ideal includes characteristics that category members should exhibit if they are to serve as a representative to the category (Barsalou, 1985). As such, a category members prototypicality increases with its similarity to the categorys ideal. Therefore, in some cases, categories may be organized around ideal prototypes rather than typical prototypes. For example, a follower might judge a leader based on an ideal notion (ILT) when evaluating whether a leader is worthy of influence (Barsalou, 1985). Similarly, the closer the stimulus is to a categorys ideal, or the more category exemplars the stimulus resembles, the more likely the observer will classify the stimulus as a member of that category (Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996). In this example, the category is a leader w ho is worthy of influence. It has also been argued that there is a possible feedback loop between employees categorization of a supervisor as congruent to the implicit leadership profile and their perceptions of the supervisors behavior (Lord Maher, 1993). Leadership categorization processes can have an influence on perceptions of actual leader behavior, but they are also likely to be affected by a persons general day-to-day experiences with a manager. It might be through their exposure to their actual leaders behaviors that employees engage in a categorization process and make active comparison between their actual supervisor and the implicit profile stored in memory. Furthermore, perceivers may then rely on existing categorizations and evaluations of congruence to further simplify the processes required to recognize leadership in others. Once someone is categorized as close or distant to a perceivers ILTs, the relevant leadership schema generates further assumptions about the persons behavior, affecting per ceptions of that behavior. Additionally, once people attach a label to an object, person, or event, this process of categorization guides how they interpret much of the subsequent information they encounter concerning that object, person, or event. Over time, this additional information tends to strengthen the original categorization (Lord Maher, 1993). Measure of ILTs and Effects on Validity To date, there is no single and widely accepted measure of implicit leadership theories. Several researchers have developed independent lists of traits to measure ILTs, but such lists are rarely replicated in other research, and they often use different clusters of traits. However, attributes such as intelligent, honest, dynamic, and motivated seem to exist in all the lists elicited, and a distinction between positive (prototypic) and negative (anitprototypic) traits has been made by most researchers (Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). In addition, ILT trait lists can be fairly long, as in Lord et al.s (1984) scale of 59 items, the Schein Descriptive Indexs (SDI; Schein, 1973) 92 item scale, and Offermann et al.s (1994) scale of 41 items (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Other scales include the Campbell Leadership Indicator (CLI; Campbell, 1991), Kenney et al.s (1996) Leaders Described as Worthy of Influence, and House et al.s (1999) Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theories (CILTs). It is important to note here that leadership instruments as a whole have used both traits and behaviors to measure the construct. Specifically, the trait approach emphasizes attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values, and skills, whereas the behavior approach emphasizes the importance of what leaders actually do (e.g., activities, responsibilities, functions, etc.; Yukl, 2002.). However, behavioral theories are often considered a stronger approach in leadership literature, and thus will be the approach taken in the present study. Specifically, a meta-analysis examining the Ohio State leadership behaviors of Consideration and Initiating Structure dimensions illustrated important support for the validity of Initiating Structure and Consideration in leadership research (Judge, Piccolo, Ilies, 2004). Generalizability of ILTs A variety of individual difference variables have been considered as potentially being related to ILTs. The present study primarily examines personality as individual differences in relation to ILTs. If individual differences do not affect ILTs, then the ILTs would be generalizable across different groups of people. Such generalizability has been examined in relation to some groups of people, including gender, type of role or job, and culture. However, the generalizability of ILTs is supported by contradictory evidence. Generalizability findings have mainly focused on the areas of consistency across gender (Deal Stevenson, 1998; Offermann et al., 1994), consistency from students to professional samples (Offermann et al., 1994), and consistencies across cultures (Bryman, 1987; House et al., 1999). All three areas are generally supported across the generalizability studies, as findings support claims that ILTs remain unaffected by individual and contextual differences, and the degree to which employees resort to categorical thinking and use ILTs as a map to evaluate their actual supervisors behavior does not vary as a function of context or individual differences (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). However, other findings argue that some variations do exist. For example, even though men and women have similar perceptions of prototypic leaders, men rated traits such as aggressive, competitive, and feelings not easily hurt higher than women did, and women rated traits such as being aware of others feelings, helpful, and self-confident higher than men did (Deal Stevenson, 1998). In other words, one groups ILT is not necessarily the same as another groups. In addition, there is much discrepancy in ILT ratings in the cross-cultural literature on leadership. For instance, Gerstner (1994) compared leadership prototypes of a business leader across several countries using an attribute-rating task. Results indicated that there are reliable differences in the prototypical leadership perceptions of members from the various countries sampled. Such findings were built upon other literatures asserting that perception is not solely an innate, physiological function of the cognitive process, but is also a subjective process reflecting the self, including cultural background (Markus Kitayama, 1991). Likewise, it was also previously found that characteristic traits of a leader in one culture may be very different from prototypical traits in another culture (Shaw, 1990). Additionally, Hofstede (1976) has proposed that the more similar two individuals are in terms of nationality, the more likely they are to perceive their social environment similarly. Overall, therefore, the generalizability claims of ILTs appear inconclusive, but pertinent information may be lacking. As such, further investigation should be undertaken. Additionally, other hypotheses by Eptriopaki and Martin (2005) examined the degree to which people use ILTs as a benchmark to make sense of their supervisors behavior, and suggested that it might change as a function of context. For instance, a limited capacity model has been applied to leadership perceptions and leader behavior ratings (Epitrokpaki Martin, 2005; Lord Maher, 1990). This model acknowledges peoples limited memory capacity and their reliance on general cognitive simplification mechanisms (such as ILTs), particularly in conditions of high cognitive load. Furthermore, it was also proposed that employees in jobs of high demand will rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship they develop with their manager (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). It was further proposed that employees in exchanges of short duration would rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the relationship they develop with their supervisors than those in ex changes of long durations. Such variations have not been examined further, and there is still a clear need for future examination of all demographical variables. When considering the formation of ILTs, the present proposal will hold cultural differences constant, as only U.S. residents will serve as participants. Ethnicity and gender differences will be controlled. As described above, the definition and illustration of ILTs often refers to past experiences playing a role in the formation of such theories. However, studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process. The first hypothesis in the present study attempts to explain how the role of past experiences affects the ILT formation process by examining ratings of subordinates most and least effective leaders. Therefore, the following is hypothesized about the effects of experience on predicting implicit leadership theories: Hypothesis 1: Subordinates past experiences with various types of leaders will predict their implicit leadership theories. ILTs will be more strongly related to descriptions of ones most effective leader than to descriptions of ones least effective leader. The Formation of ILTs Expanded: The Effects of Personality The present study also examines how ILTs could be formed by personality. Historically, results of investigations relating personality traits to leadership have been inconsistent and often disappointing. Most reviews of the literature have concluded that the trait approach has fallen out of favor among leadership researchers. The original source of skepticism with the trait approach is often attributed to Stogdills (1948) influential review. Although Stogdill did find some consistent relations, he concluded, The findings suggest that leadership is not a matter of passive status or of the mere possession of some combination of traits (Stogdill, 1948, p. 66). As Bass (1990) noted, after Stogdills (1948) review, situation-specific analyses took over, in fact, dominating the field of leadership theory and research (p. 59). Many attempts have examined the personality traits in effective leaders (Hogan, 1994; Judge Bono, 2000; Tett Burnett, 2003), but the definition of what comprises an e ffective leader may be partly responsible for theory abandonment. Perhaps this is because there are unique differences among individuals personalities, it seems likely that individuals implicit leadership theories, or their expectations of an effective leader, will be differ from person to person, and these differences could be related to personality of the person whose ILT is examined. The ILTs approach reflects a resurgence of interest in leadership traits, but the emphasis is now placed on the perceptual processes underlying the conceptualization of leadership. When defining ideal leadership, it is important to remember that ones personality may affect what behaviors he or she thinks are most effective for leading others (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). A similar case has already been argued for the role that supervisors implicit theories play on performance appraisals (Borman, 1987; Cronbach, 1955; Uggerslev Sulsky, 2008). For instance, it has been found that raters often use their own distinctive dimensions to evaluate the performance of their employees (Borman, 1987). Such evidence has led to the implementation of frame-of-reference (FOR) training, or a training program that helps raters hold a common understanding of how to rate an organizations performance dimensions. FOR training has been shown to help increase the accuracy of performance ratings, thereby countering the effects of supervisors implicit theories of performance. Therefore, if it has been found that supervisors have implicit theories based on their own personal performance ideology, it only seems logical that subordinates could too have their own personal theories on the performance of leaders. Social Perceptions based on Similarity Some of the ILT literature has suggested that implicit theories can provide stability to dyadic relationships when they fulfill a similarity paradigm (Epitropaki Martin, 2001; Turban et al., 1990). For instance, the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971) states that similarity between individuals with regard to personal attributes or other characteristics is linearly related to interpersonal attraction, such that similarity gives rise to attraction while dissimilarity engenders repulsion. In the context of outcomes, it has been argued that interpersonal attraction fosters supervisor-subordinate compatibility and in turn, performance. For instance, the resulting interpersonal connection encourages accurate perception of supervisor performance expectations and, consequently, improved subordinate performance (Deluga, 1998). In addition, there is evidence that perceptions of similarity, both in a general sense (Wexley Pulakos, 1983) and with regard to specific attributes such as demographic characteristics (Epitropaki Martin, 2001), attitudes (Phillips Bedeian, 1994), values (Ashkanasy OConnor, 1997), competence (Kim Organ, 1982) and personality traits (Bauer Green, 1996; Keller, 1999), have been associated with perceptions of leader-member exchange quality. Moreover, it has been found that subordinates who regard themselves as being similar to their supervisors communicate more with them, and are rated as higher performers than those who do not (Turban et al., 1990). This may describe the previously mentioned gender differences found in terms of individual ratings on effective leader attributes. Other relationships, like mentorships, have also evidenced success based on attraction due to the similarity of race and gender, and perceived similarity of beliefs and attitudes (Turban, Dougherty, Lee, 2001). Overall, perceived similarity in a dyad (such as a supervisor-subordinate pair) is often related to favorable or pleasurable outcomes. Social Perceptions and Self-Serving Biases Individuals often believe that what they do, or how they contribute at work, is important. For instance, literature on positive self-illusions suggests that individuals may prefer leaders similar to the self, because such individuals tend to hold unrealistic, positive illusions of the self (Taylor Brown, 1988). Assuming that becoming a leader and leadership are construed as socially desirable, individuals may keep unrealistic expectations of assuming a leadership position and project their own traits onto idealized leadership images. In other words, as individuals tend to view themselves in an overly positive manner, believing that they themselves could be leaders, they may be most satisfied and most likely to want to continue working with leaders who are similar to them (Taylor Brown, 1988). They might judge such leaders to be more effective, which is similar to ILT perceptions. The social cognition literature also suggests that individuals engage in self-serving biases when describing attributes that are necessary for performance (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). It has been suggested that individuals tend to indicate that their own personality traits are those that are necessary for successful performance. Research in this domain initially (Lewicki, 1983) examined self-serving biases when looking at prototypes of social categories. It was evidenced that if an individual has a favorable impression of a target (e.g., a leader), then he or she will be more likely to assume that the target has the same characteristics as ones self. In addition, she will ascribe her own strengths and positive attributes to the target. While there is currently no available literature on self-serving biases and implicit leadership theories, several studies have examined how self-serving biases affect ratings of leadership orientation (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991; McElwee, Dunning, Tan, Hollman, 2001). In these studies, participants tended to rate leaders as goal- or people-oriented depending on which orientation the participant possessed. Interestingly, such self-serving biases were only present when rating leadership performance, as opposed to leadership creativity (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991). In addition, liking the target leader was not found to mediate or moderate the relationship between orientation of the leader and orientation of the participant (McElwee, Dunning, Tan, and Hollman, 2001). Perhaps the trait activation model (Tett Burnett, 2003) can assist in explaining how people develop the previously discussed self-biased belief systems, and consequently, their expectations. For instance, according to the trait activation model, a person will rate specific behaviors high on importance for successful performance, because those specific behaviors (and their underlying personality trait) are what make him or her effective. Because of such beliefs, those behaviors become valued by the individual. For example, a conscientious person will likely engage in organizational behaviors and work in a methodical fashion, because that is what he or she thinks is necessary in order to perform successfully on a job. When a persons traits are valued by ones organization (or perhaps ones leader), the person will probably experience more satisfaction with the job (Tett Burnett, 2003). In return, an individual may expect a leader to have similar traits as the self if these traits are seen as valuable and related to performance. Applying this rationale, it is hypothesized that a self-serving belief system will affect the formation of followers implicit leadership theories in terms of trait-based principles. Such a hypothesis lies on the foundation that personality is the underlying driving force behind how individuals behave, or why certain types of behaviors are valued. In other words, it is speculated that a subordinate will rate how an effective leader should perform (i.e., ILT), based on implicit assumptions about the behaviors that make the subordinate most effective. It is proposed that followers will hold implicit leadership theories based on a self-serving bias: that is, a bias that successf ul people are like themselves. Thus, followers will expect an effective leader to exhibit behaviors congruent with the followers own personalities. Hypothesis 2: Subordinates personalities will affect the formation of their implicit leadership theories. As such, subordinates will rate leaders who exhibit behaviors that correspond to their own personality traits as more effective than leaders whose behaviors do not correspond to the subordinates personality traits. Specifically: Subordinate conscientiousness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on initiating structure. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on consideration. Subordinate extraversion is positively associated with rating a business leader high on inspiring commitment. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on participative style. The rationale for this hypothesis rests on inferences about the relationships between specific personality traits and specific (leader) behaviors. Regarding Hypothesis 2a, the correspondence between scoring high on conscientiousness and rating a business leader high on initiating structure stems from the constructs definitions. For instance, because those who score high on conscientiousness are said to have high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors (Goldberg, 1992), it seems feasible to assume that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like initiating structure. Initiating structure refers to leader behaviors such as encouraging the use of uniform procedures and maintaining definite standards of performance (Stogdill, 1963), leader behaviors that parallel the definition of conscientiousness. Similarly, because those who score high on agreeableness are said to have high levels of trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors, it is predicted that such persons would have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension of consideration. Consideration refers to leader behaviors such as treating all group members as ones equal and looking out for the personal welfare of group members, behaviors that seem to parallel the definition of agreeableness. Similarly, it is also predicted that those who score high on agreeableness will have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension participative style. Leaders with a participative style consult with their subordinates when facing problems and ask them for suggestions concerning how ideas should be implemented (Northhouse, 2004). Lastly, because those who score high on extraversion are said to have high levels of excitability, sociability, assertiveness, emotional expressiveness, and optimism, it is predicted that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like inspiring commitment. Inspiring commitment refers to the leader behaviors of proposing change with great enthusiasm and exerting optimism when describing a difficult activity or mission for a work unit (Yukl, 1998). These behaviors seem to parallel the definition of extraversion. Leadership Self-Image Self-schemas are sets of cognitive structures that provide for individual expertise in particular domains of social behavior (Markus, Smith, Moreland, 1985). As schematicism increases in a conceptual domain, such as leadership, so does sensitivity to the behavior of others in that domain. Thinking of oneself as a leader may make ones own characteristics more salient for judging leaders. As a result, it will be important to note whether or not individuals see themselves as leaders, because it may affect if they expect a leader to be like them. That is, if the people think of themselves as leaders, then the Hypotheses 2 are more likely to be true. If, on the other hand, the person has no self-image as a leader and does not ever want to be a leader, the self-serving hypothesis might be less true. It would not be very self-serving to see another person being effective at something (e.g., leadership) as similar to oneself if leadership plays no part in ones self-image. Therefore, the relationships in Hypotheses 2 should be moderated by ones self-image regarding leadership. Hypothesis 3: Subordinate leadership self-image will moderate the relationship between subordinate personality and formation of implicit leadership theories. The relationship between personality and the formation of implicit leadership theories will be stronger when subordinates have a leadership self-image. A proposed model that is consistent with the preceding hypotheses can be viewed in Figure 1. By examining how ILTs may be formed, especially if ones past experience plays a role, important implications could be explored. For instance, Eptiropaki and Martin (2005) noted the potential role ILTs could play in the socialization of newcomers. As such, ILTs can potentially have a significant impact on the development of interpersonal relationships during the organizational socialization process (Eptiropaki Martin, 2005, p. 673). Subsequently, current training programs of leadership could seriously benefit by including some form of ILTs training to increase managers awareness of their subordinate ILTs. Figure 1. The effects of personality and experience on predicting implicit leadership theories. Experience with Behaviors of Multiple Leaders Personality of Subordinates Implicit Leadership Theory Leadership Self-Image Demographic Considerations Previously mentioned generalization issues will be considered when conducting the study. Gender effects on ILTs are of interest in past research, as are age and experience. Younger and less experienced employees might have different conceptions of ideal leadership from employees with more experience and more exposure to organizational leaders (Brown Lord, 2001). Age, education level, occupational title, and years employed will therefore be examined and controlled if necessary. In addition, ethnicity will be recorded, but the sample will be limited to United States residents to avoid previously found cross-cultural differences. Participative Leadership Even though there are often individual differences among people, maybe working individuals just generally prefer a participative leader over a certain type of leadership that is based on their personalities or past experiences. For instance, practicing participative leadership offers a variety of potential benefits, including likelihood to increase the quality of decision-making (Scully, Kirkpatrick Locke, 1995), to contribute to the quality of employees work life (Somech, 2002), and to increase employees motivation (Locke and Latham, 1990), commitment (Armenakis, Harris, Mossholder, 1993), and satisfaction (Smylie, Lazarus, Brownlee-Conyers, 1996), all of which suggest that subordinates react well to participation leadership. Participative leadership is based on the process of joint decision-making by two or more parties in which the decisions have future effects on those making them. The amount of participation by any individual is the amount of influence he or she has on the decisions and plans agreed upon (Vroom, 1959). Specifically, participative leadership involves the efforts of a supervisor to encourage and facilitate participation by subordinates when making decisions that could have been made by the manager alone. Participative leadership can take many forms, such as revising a tentative decision after receiving protests, asking for suggestions before making a decision, or allowing others to make a decision subject to a supervisors final authorization (Yukl, 2002). Field and House (1990) examined the validity of the Vroom-Yetton decision-making model of leadership, and found it was validated for managers, but not for subordinates. Although they were not explicitly studying ILTs, their results sug gest that because the model was developed and validated on managers perceptions of leader styles in relation to their perceptions of effectiveness, it is biased towards managers implicit leadership theories. Subordinates in their study, however, perc

Essay --

Instruction or lectures (amount and quality) Academic achievement of students disrupted and decline due to the instructor and lectures factor. Most selective university lecturers are very brilliant in their studies, but they are less skilled to give lectures to the students in the class. This made it difficult for students to understand the content of the lesson presented by the lecturers and make the student feel bored and uninterested. Imparting skills effectively is very important. Lecturers need to know and study the most effective methods to teach and get students' attention. Interesting teaching techniques and can effectively improve student enthusiasm for learning more seriously and diligently to excel in all subjects. Quality of teaching should be clearly described and punctuated by making a lot of refresher training with the students so that students can better understand the lessons taught. Besides, the lecturer should give tips and advice about education and how to answer the exam questions correctly. Environment (home, school, peers and technology) Environmental factors a...

when i was a youngster :: Free Essay Writer

When I Was A Youngster†¦ Well I don’t really remember much of my childhood. But here is one story that I do remember. This was when I was about four of five. I was at my dad’s house for his birthday one weekend. That was also his birthday and memorial weekend too. That means that he will be having a lot of people over to party all night. He lives on a lake so when he has parties all his friends bring over there jet skies and boats, but I couldn’t drive them cause I was too little. It was still fun getting rides on them though. My dad also had a huge pull-barn. It was about as big as the cafeteria. That’s where everyone usually hangs out but not a lot of people were in there today. They were all out on the lake, playing volleyball, and sitting by the fire. It was getting pretty late into the night and the party started to calm down a little. A few people were still talking but the fire and also few people in the pull-barn. I decided to go talk to the guys by the fire. The cool thing about my dad’s friends is that they don’t talk to me as a little kid. They talked to me like I was the same age as them. That’s probably why I never had trouble with speech. After a while I got bored and I started walking into the pull-barn. All of a sudden a car came flying down the driveway and slammed on its breaks! They had a canoe on top of their car. I guess they forgot to tie it down tight cause as soon as they hit there breaks the canoe went flying across the yard and came within inches from my dads house. I could tell the driver was pretty messed up cause of the way he was driving and the way he was walking after he got out of the car. My Dad heard the accident and came running to see what happen. When he sees what the guy did he got really mad and started cussing him out and everything. It was crazy I have never seen my dad that mad in my life. But he wasn’t mad enough to hit him in front of me. So he just yelled and told me to left.

Vulnerable Homeless Population

Leininger’s Theory of Culture Care states that â€Å"Care is the essence of nursing and the central, dominant and unifying focus of nursing (2002). † Leininger observes that culture is linked to every individual and that the purpose of â€Å"care, is to provide culturally congruent care to people of different or similar cultures to maintain or regain well-being and health or face death in a culturally appropriately way (2002). † Even if that culture is the homeless. According to de Chesnay (2008), â€Å"Vulnerable populations are those at risk for poor physical, psychological, or social health.Anyone can be vulnerable at any given point in time as a result of life circumstances or response to illness or events† (2008 pg. 3). In this paper I will focus on the homeless population their assessment, Healthy People 2020 recomendations and intervention strategies for this group. The homeless have the highest level of exposure to social and environmental risk fac tors. This population is at risk for severe deprivations such as hunger and lack of adequate hygiene and victimization such as physical assault, robbery, and rape.Approximately one-third to two-thirds of homeless people are subjected to crime. Sexual assault rate also is higher in homeless population than in the general population. Lack of a protective and safe home, living in unfamiliar environments, and increased vulnerability from mental illness or drug-related problems are the reasons for their traumatic life events. Homeless children growing up in shelters and without a stable home often have unmet educational, social, and emotional needs (Levinson, 2004).Heath risk factors facing the homeless include and are not limited to lack of insurance, permnent shelter, lack of transportation, Where are the homeless living ? NHCHC (2010) ? Homeless youth rely on themselves or peers for survival and for this reason they engage in illegal activities and risky behaviors such as theft, panha ndling, drug dealing, and exchanging sex for food, money, and shelter. Lack of safe environment during adolescence and experiences of trauma contribute to mental illness, substance use, and risky behaviors. Approximately 20% of homeless children do not attend school.Disruption of learning, teacher, and peer supports results from frequent moving associated with homelessness and lead to poor academic achievement in homeless children. Overcrowded living arrangements in shelters result in high infection rates in homeless people. Poor nutrition may result from limited access to cooking facilities and food. Homeless people living in the street have high exposure to cold and hot weather (Levinson, 2004). Healthy People 2020 Objectives ?The goals of Healthy People 2020 homeless population include achieving health equity, eliminating disparities, and improving the health of all groups.Homeless people have high risk for negative health consequences. They have more chronic diseases, mental ill ness, and substance abuse problems. Poverty and lack medical insurance prevent them from obtaining needed health services (Kidder, Wolitski, Campsmith & Nakamura, 2007). Financial and nonfinancial barriers prevent them from accessing the needed services. Nonfinancial barriers include mistrust of health care providers, lack of access to primary care provider, and assault victims’ fear of reporting of assault when seeking treatment.The strategies to eliminate these barriers include education of health care workers about the importance of non-stigmatizing attitudes toward homeless people, primary prevention of physical assault, and establishment of special programs to provide primary care for homeless patients (Hwang, Ueng, Chiu, Kiss, Tolomiczenko, Cowan, Levinson, & Redelmeier, 2010). Treating homeless patients equally with respect will help health care workers to create a trusting relationship with them, which in turn eliminate their hesitancy to seek help and improve their h ealth outcomes.Plan of Care and Interventions ? A plan of care for homeless clients will need to be performed and communicated to team members that can support care. Assessing patient by collecting the data is the first step and will help to determine thy type and depth of nursing that is needed. The nursing diagnosis and plans with rationale of the sign and symptoms presented y will help to formulate a plan that is effective to meet the patient’s therapeutic self care demands and overcome the self care deficits pertaining to knowledge deficit.Nurses can help educate homeless patients, shelter staff and others directly involved with them about prevention, care and management of chronic illnesses, as well as how to access the healthcare services they need (Cotton & Roden, 2006). Community nurses work in homes and places of employment. They have skills and expertise that they can use to implement health promotion strategies that will be sustainable and have enduring outcomes fo r individuals (Cotton and Roden, 2006). Homeless people use emergency rooms and psychiatric hospitals as there doctors so when they are admitted, Nurses need to identify the homeless during the admit process.Nurses can work collaboratively with the social work department to help them with necessary resources to control disease, maintain treatment or preventative measure to prevent further deterioration of health on discharge. Educating the homeless families and hospital staff about preventing chronic illnesses is crutial for supporting this population. Community Nurses can teach health promotion strategies. Identify the at risk when Emergency room or Psychiatric department visits are made. Be aware of the patients emotional, physical and psychiatric health to help in holistic care.Advocate for longer hospital stay if necessary for holistic care to be achieved. Homeless families and children have many health risks and nursing care needs that can be addressed once contact and an asses sment is complete. For example, for the nurse admitting homeless family members to hospital, such knowledge pertaining to their emotional, physical and psychological needs and strengths is an important aspect that assessment techniques can bring out so they are addressed. (Cotton & Roden, 2006). References Johnson, D. J. (2001). Understanding culture, learning cultural competence.American Public Health Association. Retrieved from http://apha. confex. com National Health Care for the Homeless Council. (2010). Addressing cultural and linguistic competence in the homeless setting. Retrieved from http://www. nhch. org Cotton, A. H. , & Roden, J. (2006,  December). Using patterns of knowing in nursing as a possible framework for nursing care of the homeless families with children.. Contemporary Nurse: A Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, 23(2), 331-341. Hwang, S. W. , Ueng, J. , Chiu, S. , Kiss, A. , Tolomiczenko, G. , Cowan, L. , Levinson, W. , & Redelmeier, D. 2010). Univ ersal Health Insurance and Health Care Access for Homeless Persons. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8), 1454-1461. doi:10. 2105/AJPH. 2009. 182022. Kidder,  D. P. ,  Wolitski,  R. J. ,  Campsmith,  M. L. ,  &  Nakamura,  G. V.. (2007). Health Status, Health Care Use, Medication Use, and Medication Adherence Among Homeless and Housed People Living With HIV/AIDS. American Journal of Public Health,  97(12),  2238-45. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Complete. (Document ID:  1392878511). Levinson, D. (2004). Encyclopedia of Homelessness. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 8